Significance of Lumbini
Lumbini in the Terai lowlands of Nepal, situated not far from the Indian border, is held in high regards as the birthplace of the Buddha. As such, it's one of the four most important Buddhist pigrimage sites, each of the four marking one of the four major events in the life of the Buddha: his birth in Lumbini, his awakening to enlightenment in Bodhnath to the south of River Ganges, his first sermon in Sarnath near Varanasi, and his death marking the perfection of Nirvana in Kushinagara to the north of river Ganges.
In addition to this primary holy sites there are further places of pilgrimage. The classic Buddhist Circuit pilgrimage tour comprises altogether eight, viz. the four mentioned above and five where major miracles of the Buddha occured, namely Lumbini again, where the Buddha walked seven steps immediately after his birth, Shravasti, where the Buddha emitted fire from the top half of his body and water from the bottom half at the same time, Vaishali, where he recieved honey and water from monkeys, Rajgir, where he calmed down the angry elephant Nalagiri that had been intoxicated and let loose on him by his jealous cousin Davedatta, and Sankasia, where he returned to eart after having met his mother Mayadevi in Tushita Heaven. Though Bodhnath, the place of the illumination under the tree, is definitely the most sacred site in the Buddhist world, Lumbini is arguably the second most important pilgrimage site as it is, as noticed above, the only place that marks both a major event in the life of the Buddha and one of his four major miracles. Lumbini is the only of the eight Budddhist Circuit sites listed above that is today outside of Indian territory. In consequence, it's the most revered Buddhist place in Nepal. |
Lumbini is only 30 km east of Tilaurakot, which many archaeologists believe to be the ancient site of Kapilavastu, the capital of the Shakyas, where Suddhodana, the father of the Buddha, reigned and the Buddha spent his youth as a cosseted prince. However, the exact place of the former Kapilavastu is debated, as some archaeologists think that the historical Shakya residence was Piprahwa, 25 km south of Tilaurakot and 25 km southwest of Lumbini on Indian territory very close to the border.
The reason why the Buddha was not born in Kapilavastu was that following the customs Queen Maya, known by Buddhists under the honorific names Mahamaya (Great Maya) or Maydevi (Divine Maya), in the final days of her pregnancy returned to her parents' hometown Devadaha. However, when her entourage reached the wonderful flower garden of Lumbini half way to her home town, she stepped down from her palanquin and enjoyed a walk in the shadow of a Sal tree. Mayadevi was so delighted by the beauty of the park that she gave birth just standing at the tree, holding onto a branch. |
HistoriCal Lumbini Garden
Today's name of the municipality encompassing the sacred site of Lumbini is Lumbini Sanskritik. The precolonial name of the location is Rummindei in Rupandehi Distrikt, both latter names being still in use for the site. However, the place was often called Lumbini even before it was identified as such by Alois Anton Führer in 1896. Führer discovered the Ashokan pillar inscription that states it was erected at the site where the Buddha was born. The detailed stories concerning the circumstances of the birth of the Buddha in Lumbini are mainly known from legends later on recorded in the earliest known biographies of the Buddha's life, namely the Mahavastu (2.18) and the Lalitavistara (chapter 7), both of which are Mahayana writings in Sanskrit that are many centuries younger than the earliest Buddhist scriptures. However, the name Lumbini as the birthplace of the Buddha is already given in the Pali canon, namely in verse 683 of the Nalaka Sutta or rather a narrative attachment to it (Sutta Nipata III, 11), which is part of the Kuddhaka Nikaya of the Sutta Pitaka (basket of sutras). Actually, Lumbini is mentioned a second time in the Pali Kanon, in the Kathavatthu, which is part of the (younger) Abhidamma Pitaka.
Modern Lumbini Project
It was on the initiative of no less than U Thant, the then United Nations Secretary General, a devout Buddhist from Myanmar, who visited the birthplace of the Buddha himself in 1967, that a development of the ancient site into a restored place of pilgrimage of international significance was discussed with the then King Mahendra of Nepal and his government. The so-called Lumbini Development Master Plan was approved by Nepal Government in 1978. The renowned Japanese architect Kenzo Tange was won over to design a master plan for the systematic development of the Lumbini Park.
According to this Master Plan, the Lumbini Garden now spreads in an area of almost 5 km length from north to south and 1.6 km width from east to west. Within this large sacred area only religious and educational institutions are permitted to be built. There are no shops, hotels, restaurants or other commercial tourist facilities allowed within the Lumbini Park. The intense construction programme has mainly been carried out since the 1990s and is almost finalised. Today, most other Buddhist nations and several international monastic institutions maintain their own temples in Lumbini. The newly developed foreign temples are situated to the north of the ancient site, on both sides of the Central Canal. UNESCO declared Lumbini World Heritage in 1997.
The Government of Nepal allows foreign nations and monastic institutions to lease land for a hundred years in Lumbini to operate their national temples. Some monks from other Buddhist countries live in their nation's respective temple permantly, whereas other clerics stay here for only a certain period, usually a few months. On avarage, such a foreign national temple houses about one or two dozen monks. However, the number can reach even hundreds, when they come from hteir respective homeland to join the ceremonies in Lumbini during festival days such as Buddha Jayanti (Buddha's Birthday usually celebrated on the full-moon day of Vesak, which is a Public Holiday in Nepal). Art and handicraft of each temple are from foreign nationals, too. Pilgrims of foreign Buddhist nations can stay in the respective temple, which offer food and accommodation facilities.
According to this Master Plan, the Lumbini Garden now spreads in an area of almost 5 km length from north to south and 1.6 km width from east to west. Within this large sacred area only religious and educational institutions are permitted to be built. There are no shops, hotels, restaurants or other commercial tourist facilities allowed within the Lumbini Park. The intense construction programme has mainly been carried out since the 1990s and is almost finalised. Today, most other Buddhist nations and several international monastic institutions maintain their own temples in Lumbini. The newly developed foreign temples are situated to the north of the ancient site, on both sides of the Central Canal. UNESCO declared Lumbini World Heritage in 1997.
The Government of Nepal allows foreign nations and monastic institutions to lease land for a hundred years in Lumbini to operate their national temples. Some monks from other Buddhist countries live in their nation's respective temple permantly, whereas other clerics stay here for only a certain period, usually a few months. On avarage, such a foreign national temple houses about one or two dozen monks. However, the number can reach even hundreds, when they come from hteir respective homeland to join the ceremonies in Lumbini during festival days such as Buddha Jayanti (Buddha's Birthday usually celebrated on the full-moon day of Vesak, which is a Public Holiday in Nepal). Art and handicraft of each temple are from foreign nationals, too. Pilgrims of foreign Buddhist nations can stay in the respective temple, which offer food and accommodation facilities.
What to see in Lumbini
The list of places of interest below begins with the ancient site in the south and then proceeds to the Theravada nations' monasteries in the east and finally to the Mahayana and Vajrayana temples in the west of the Lumbini Garden.
The holy site of Lumbini has ruins of ancient monasteries, a sacred Bodhi tree, an ancient bathing pond, the Ashokan pillar and the Mayadevi Temple, a site traditionally considered to be the birthplace of the Buddha. Several excavations were carried out by Lumbini Development Trust (LDT) with the support help of the Japanese Department of Archaeology and the Japan Buddhist Federation (JBF) between 1992-1995 in this so-called Mayadevi complex, which has remnants of several stupas and viharas (monasteries) in the immediate surroundings of the core structure of the Mayadevi complex, which are now encircled by a large ring of pond of 800 m in diameter, forming the southernmost part in the master plan of the newly developed Lumbini Garden.
The holy site of Lumbini has ruins of ancient monasteries, a sacred Bodhi tree, an ancient bathing pond, the Ashokan pillar and the Mayadevi Temple, a site traditionally considered to be the birthplace of the Buddha. Several excavations were carried out by Lumbini Development Trust (LDT) with the support help of the Japanese Department of Archaeology and the Japan Buddhist Federation (JBF) between 1992-1995 in this so-called Mayadevi complex, which has remnants of several stupas and viharas (monasteries) in the immediate surroundings of the core structure of the Mayadevi complex, which are now encircled by a large ring of pond of 800 m in diameter, forming the southernmost part in the master plan of the newly developed Lumbini Garden.
Pushkarini Pond
The Mayadevi Pond, also known as Pushkarani Pond, is said to have been the place where Queen Mayadevi took a bath before giving birth to Prince Siddhartha, who would become the Buddha. Local believes have it, that the infant prince was also given his purification bath here. However, according to older legends the newborn was washed with rain sent by the gods. The most famous Chinese pilgrims to India, Faxian, who visited Lumbini around 400 AD, and Xuanzang, who traveled here in the 7th century, in their travel accounts recorded the existence of this Sacred Pond having served as the bath of the newly born Prince Siddhartha. in 1996, two wells were dicovered in corners of the Pushkarani Pond. The present day pond measures 25 m in square in is about 5 m deep.
Mayadevi Temple
The remnants of the ancient main sanctuary are now covered by the roof, forming the so-called Mayadevi Temple. the temple had 15 box chambers and a circumambulatory path surrounded by an outer wall. The archaeological excavation undertaken Robin Coningham in 2010-2013 uncovered a timber shrine below the stone structures. The would could be carbondated to the 6th century BC, which corresponds to the lifetime of the Buddha according to Nepalese and other Buddhist calenders. However, due to studies of the sources, most scientists consider the 4th century BC more likely to be the time of the Buddha. Actually, the existence of an older wooden shrine for the purpose of tree veneration at this place does not mean that it had been Buddhist right from the beginning. Buddhist temples often intergrated older places of tree or also serpent worship.
Ashoka pillar
Emperor Ashoka, a zealous supporter of Buddhism and the spread of the Dharma, visited the birthplace of the Buddha in the 3rd century BC and left one of his pillars with an inscription in commemoration, which is now the main proof that Rummindei, as the village was known, was the ancient Lumbini. According to the translation given by the renowned Sri Lankan epigraphist Senarath Paranavitana, the inscription near the base of the Rummindai Pillar reads:
"When King Devanampriya Priyadarsin had been anointed twenty years, he came himself and worshipped (this spot) because the Buddha Shakyamuni was born here. (He) both caused to be made a stone bearing a horse (?) and caused a stone pillar to be set up, (in order to show) that the Blessed One was born here. (He) made the village of Lummini free of taxes, and paying (only) an eighth share (of the produce)."
"When King Devanampriya Priyadarsin had been anointed twenty years, he came himself and worshipped (this spot) because the Buddha Shakyamuni was born here. (He) both caused to be made a stone bearing a horse (?) and caused a stone pillar to be set up, (in order to show) that the Blessed One was born here. (He) made the village of Lummini free of taxes, and paying (only) an eighth share (of the produce)."
Eternal Peace Flame
Located at the southern end of the Grand Canal, the Eternal Flame was created in 1986 to celebrate and commemorate the United Nation's International Year of Peace. Remarkably, the major efforts to proclaim and the major events to celebrate an International Year of Peace were initiated by a different religious group, namely the Bahai faith. However, the idea was not only embraced by the United Nations but also by the Buddhist pilgrimage center of Lumbini. The eternal flame marks the link between the ancient and the modern sections of Lumbini Garden. This means, it's placed at a focal point of the official masterplan, that had been designed by Prof. Kenzo Tange. The renowned japanese architect is responsible for the creation of the Grand Canal as the central axis in particular.
Vipassana Centre(s)
The Dhamma Jananai Lumbini Vipassana Centre is located close to the Golden Temple of Myanmar and also has a landmark golden stupa in the style of Myanmar. This makes sense, as the meditation technique known as Vipassana was re-introduced in Myanmar, then known as Burma, in the 18th century by Medawi, who developed it by studying the canonical texts, mainly the Satthipathana Sutta. Ever since, Myanmar has remained to be the centre of the Vipassana movement, which tought mediation not only to monks but also to laypeople. Dhamma Janani means "Mother of Dhamma". The first course was conducted here in Lumnini in 2002. Confusingly, there is another Vipassana Centre in the Myanmarese tradition nearby, just at the opposite side of the Grand Canal. It's called Panditarama Lumbini International Vipassana Meditation Center and was inaugurated in 1999.
Nuns Temple
One of the busiest places in Lumbini Garden is the only nunnery. It's Theravadin and this is still something special, as the the Theravadin tradition held the view that the lineage of nuns' ordination ceased already centuries ago. The only remaining women's ordination lineage is the Dharmaguptaka one in Mahayana countries. In recent decades, nuns from this East Asian lineage assisted in the ordination of nuns in Theravada lineages. The validitiy of such ordination has been disputed but has become more widely accepted in Theravada countries in recent years. The nunnery is called "International Goutami Nun Temple". It's named after Mahapajapati Gotam, the aunt and step mother of the Buddha. She was the first woman who received ordination, after she successfully pleaded for it and convinced the Buddha to allow women to join an order. So she became the first Buddhist nun.
Sri Lanka monastery
The core element of the Sri Lankan monastery in Lumbini is a Bo-tree terrace, as Sri Lanka is proud to be the nation with the oldest surviving sapling of the original tree in Bodhgaya under which the Buddha is said to have found enlightenment. The original Bo-tree in India does not exist any more. The tree that can be seen growing at the place of the enlightenment in Bodhgaya is actually grown from Sri Lanka's Bo-tree. Among heads of states, presidents of Sri Lanka might be the most frequently seen foreign guests in Lumbini. On a visit in 2018, then President Maithripala Sirisena promised his government's support to complete the ambitious Lumbini Master Plan set out by the Government of Nepal. Not surprisingly, Lumbini is Nepal's major travel destination for Sri Lankan citizens. Most of them visit it on a detour from India during a Buddhist Circuit pilgrimage.
Myanmar Golden Temple
The Myanmar Golden Temple in Lumbini is built in the typical bell-shape of stupas in Myanmar and like the most revered of them it is painted yellow or even gilded. In contrast to traditional stupas, there are interior rooms. Among the representations of the Buddhist nations, the Temple of Myanmar is one of the oldest in the newly developed areas of the Lumbini Garden. Like the Thai and Sri Lankan temple and others, it serves as a monastery indeed: Usually, only a few monks are residents, whereas some more others stay only for certain periods. Secondly, the temple provides food and accommodation for pilgrims of the respective nation and also allows them to participate in ceremonies of the kind they know from their respective homelands, which tend to differ much from ceremonies of other Buddhist nations. Other nationals are welcome, too, but they are mostly tourists instead of pilgrims.
Cambodian Temple
The Cambodian Temple is the youngest among the representatives of various Buddhist nations in Lumbini. It was inaugurated in 2018. It's intricate design is inspired more by the - mostly wooden - pagoda style of Theravada monasteries in the late medieval and early modern period of Cambodia than by the Mahayana temples of Angkor that were built in the classical period of Khmer culture. Actually, the style resembles more that of Thailand than that of Angkor. This temple is now one of the best specimens of Khmer pagodas at all. However, the garden of the imposing and refined building includes statues with references to the Angkor period, too. For example, the emple is surrounded by a railing with 50 m long green snakes whose tails entwine at the corners, a reminder of the Vasuki railings of temple bridges of the Angkorian era.
Maha Bodhi Society branch
When the Maha Bodhi Society was founded by Anagarika Dharmapala in Colombo in 1981, it formed the institutional backbone of a Buddhist revival in Asia, contributing significantly to withstand the pressures of imperialistic Christian missionary efforts. In the Theravada tradition, the Mahabodhi society was a modernizing force in at least two relevant respects. Firstly, the laypeople played a much more significant role than traditionally. Secondly, the hand was reached out to Mahayana countries, too, first and foremost to Japan, as all Buddhist traditons could aeasily gree to join efforts to restore the Mahabodhi temple in India. The headquarters of the Maha Bodhi society were shifted from Sri Lanka to Bodhgaya accordingly. Not surprisingly, the Maha Bodhi Society maintains a branch office at Lumbhini, the second most important Buddhist pilgrimage site.
Thai Temple
The Thai people embraced the Theravada form of Buddhism from Sri Lanka shortly after establishing their first indepedent kingdoms. For ceremonial halls they developed a quite unique style of architecture with teslecope roofs, later stone constructions imitating former wooden buildings. This style of Thailand's monasteries known as Wats influenced the architecture of pagodas in Cambodia and Laos significantly. Not surprisingly, the Thai Temple in Lumbini is built in the classical Wat style. Like the Marble Temple of Bangkok, the Thai Temple of Lumbini is built from gleaming white marble. The constructon was sponsored by the Thai government. A large inauguration cermony was held on 8 November 2014 as Robe Offering, attended by the Head of Thai Buddhist missionary in India and Nepal.
Lumbini Canal
The Grand Canal in the exact north-south direction marks the central axis of the modern Lumbini Garden. It is aligned with the centre of the ancient site, the Majadevi temple and Ashoka pillar, which are now situated precisely to the south of this axis. The Grand Canal, also called Central Canal or Lumbini Canal, separates the entire modern garden area into an eastern and western monastic zone, the eastern one being the home of the Theravadin monasteries, whereas the western zone assembles all Mahayana temples. However, bridges koin the two sides also symbolically. Outboard motor boats are available at the northern end to provide sightseeing tours or comfortable transfers to the ancient main sanctuary at the southern end. The canal measures 1.5 km in length. The distance from the North Pond at the Lumbini Museum to the Mayadevi temple in the south is 2.2 km or 1.4 miles altogether.
South Pond
Confusingly, the South Pond, which indeed has a twin pond further north, marks the northern end of the central axis along which the Lumbini canal runs and separates the Mahayana and Theravada sections of the modern Lumbini Park. As visitors usually arrive from the north, the North Pond is a place of reception in the huge garden area. On a peninsula stretching to the centre of the pond there is a column which now carries a standing statue of the infant Siddharta. His uncanonical mudra illustrates a popular belief that at birth, when taking seven steps, Prince Siddartha pointed to the sky with one hand and to the ground with the other, stressing uniqueness from heavens to earth. The pond marks the centre of the cultural zone of Limbini. This is why the Lumbini Museum is placed here. The Lumbini International Research institute stands right opposite to the museum.
Lumbini Museum
A museum has been part of the Lumbini Master Plan right from the beginning in 1978. The Lumbini museum is housed in a group of vaulted brick structure designed by the Japanese architect Kenzo Tange, winner of the 1987 Pritzker Prize for architecture. The museum collected artefacts such as statues and paintings and architectural models and copies of famous works of art from all Asian countries to become a documentation of the development of Buddhist art over the centuries. For example, one section of the museum collected ceremonial items and dress. Apart from artefacts, photos are on display recording the history of the Lumbini pilgrimage site in the modern era. The exhibiton is currently undergoing a restauration and a rearrangement of the objects.
World Peace Dagoba
Lumbini's World Peace Pagoda represents the Buddhist nation of Japan and has an international agenda at the same time. In style, it resembles a classical hemispherical stupa of India and not a Japanese pagoda. Like most other peace pagodas, the Shanti Dagaba of Lumbini was erected by monks of the Nipponzan Myohoji Fujii Guruji Shanti Stupa Society of Japanese Buddhism. The founder of this group was the monk Nichidatsu Fujii, who had met Mahatma Gandhi in 1931 and devoted his life to follow his teachings of non-violence. After World War II, Nichidatsu Fujii initiated the construction or World Peace Pagodas, the first one being inaugurated in Kumamoto. Ever since, more than eighty have been constructed in various nations in all parts of the world. The Lumbini Shanti Stupa was constructed by monks and inaugurated in November 2001.
German Temple
The German temple is named after the country in which most of the activities of the Tibetan Drigung Kagyu intitutions found their home. Originally, Drigung Kagyu is one of the eight so-called minor linages of the Tibetan Kagyu school. In contrast to the "major" lineages, which are founded by the disciples of Gampopa himself, the "minor" lineages go back to Gampopa's main disciple, Phagmo Drupa. The Dharmaraja Foundation is only one of the modern institutions of Drigung Kagyu. It's engaged in developing monasteries and temples in Nepal in particular. The huge German temple is crowned by a stupa in the Tibetan tyle. In between the rectangular basis and the cylindrical dome of the chorten are seven tiers of lotus rings instead of the ordinary four. They refer to the seven steps the Buddha did miraculously immediately after his birth. It's not perimtted to take pictures inside the temple, which houses large statues and paintings.
World Center for Peace and Unity
The World Center for Peace and Unity is the largest complex in the Lumbini Gardens. It's run by the United Trungram Buddhist Fellowship, the head of which is Trungram Gyalwa Rinpoche, a Tulku (reincarnate lama) of the Kagyu lineage of Tibetan Buddhism. He was the first tulku receiving a Ph.D. of a Western University. His intention is to revive ancient cuture to contribute to modern concerns. Trungram Gyalwa Rinpoche himself is actually the architect of the temple, which makes use of natural air circulation and solar power. The eco-friendly design includes a stupa in the Nepalese style and a rectangular complex inspired by the Viharas of ancient Buddhist universities, with cells surrounding a central courtyard. The aspiration of the Udyana Mahachaitya is to be non-sectarian. It's open to Buddhists of all schools and particularly to all those nationalities that are not represented by an own temple in Lumbini park.
Vietnamese temple
In contrast to the other Buddhist nations of mainland Southeast Asia, Vietnamese people mostly prefer Mahayana tradtions of Buddhism over Theravada teachings. This is a result of predominantly Chinese instead of direct Southasian influence on the Vietnamese culture and religion throughout centuries. The Vietnamese temple is the only temple of a Southeast Asian Nation that is found on the western side of the Lumbini canal, whereas the Theravada nations are assembled in the eastern part of the garden. The official name of the temple is "Vietnam Phat Quoc Tu". It's one of very few intitutions that represent cultural relationships between Vietnam and Nepal. The design is held in the Vietnamese pagoda style with impressive dragons as acroteria, much larger in scale than the rooftop animal sculptures of Chinese pagodas. The edifice is flanked by artificial mountains as part of a landscape garden design.
European-Austrian Temple
The so-called Austrian temple in Lumbini is run by a mainly European branch of the Gelug tradition, which is the most significant school of Tibetan Buddhism. "Geden" is an an alternative name of "Ganden", one of the three major university monasteries of the Gelugpa. Actually, the name "Geden" was used often by Tsongkhapa himself, who founded that monastery 50 km east of Lhasa in 1409 and died there in 1419 and has ever since been the major authority the Gelug tradition refers to. The official name of the so-called Austrian Temple in Lumbini is "Mother Temple of the Graduated Path to Enlightenment". It was established and has been run by the Rabten Foundation, which is actually based in Switzerland. The temple is open to the public daily every day except Tuesday. Pilgrims and meditation excercisers can spend some longer time in the monastery. The architecture is providing natural coolness without airconditioning.
Dharmodaya Mahachaitya
This edifice between the Korean temple and Manang Samaj temple is a large hemispherical stupa in the Nepalese style. In contrast to ancient stupas, this one has interior rooms open to visitors. It contains a large Buddha statue in the very centre. Small Buddha statues can be seen around the wall. large paintings in an attached museum illustrates the biography of the Buddha. The name "Swayambhu Mahachaitya" refers to the famous Swayambunath stupa in Kathmandu, "swayambhu" meaning "created by oneself". Dharmodaya Sabha is a Theravada-leaning Buddhist organisation in the lay-oriented tradition of Buddhist modernism, in close relationship to the Mahabodhi Society. Dharmodaya Sabha is now firmly established in Nepal. It had been exiled to India in the first half of the 20th century, but played a major role in developing Lumbini into a large-scale Buddhist pilgrimage site again.
Karma Samteling monastery
"Karma Samten Ling" simply means "place of meditation". The temple of the same name in Lumbini is operated by the Karma Kagyu lineage, also known as Kamtsang or "Black hat" Lamas, which is the second largest branch of the Kagyu school, which in turn one of the four major schools of Tibetan Buddhism. In the 12th century the Karma Kagyu lineage was founded by the first Karmapa, Düsum Khyenpa, who was one of the main students of Gampopa, the major authority of all kagyu schools. The Karma Kagyu lineage has monasteries in Tibet and other regions of China as well as in neigbouring countries and Europe, centers are operated in 60 countries. Karma Kagyu has become the most influential Tibetan lineage outside Tibet, particularly in India and Nepal.
Manang Samaj Stupa
The Manang Samaj temple is another stupa in the Tibetan chorten style, more precisely: the chorton is built atop a temple, which forms its rectangular base, symbolizing earth. The Chorten is designed in one of the eight classical styles of Chorten, namely as a "Stupa of Heaped Lotuses", identifiable by the bands of lotos reliefs at the circular rings which form the upper part of the base, just below the cylinder. This form refers to the birth of the Buddha, wherea the other seven classical chorton formes refer to other major events in the Buddha's life. The heaped-lotuses chorten design is also called "Birth of the Sugata Stupa". It refers to the legend that at the time the Buddha was born in Lumbini, lotuses sprang up in the for cardinal directions, symbolizing the brahmaviha, the "abodes of brahma", a series of the four major Buddhist virtues and also the meditation practices to cultivate them: love, compassion, joy and equanimity.
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